Automobile drag coefficient

The drag coefficient is a common metric in automotive design pertaining to aerodynamic effects. As aerodynamic drag increases as the square of speed, a low value is preferable to a high one. As about 60% of the power required to cruise at highway speeds is used to overcome aerodynamic effects, minimizing drag translates directly into improved fuel efficiency.

For the same reason aerodynamics are of increasing concern to truck designers, where greater surface area presents substantial potential savings in fuel costs.

Contents

Reducing drag

Reducing drag is also a factor in sports car design, where fuel efficiency is less of a factor, but where low drag helps a car achieve a high top speed. However, there are other important aspects of aerodynamics that affect cars designed for high speed, such as racing cars. Notably, it is important to minimize lift, hence increasing downforce, to avoid the car becoming airborne. Increasing the downforce pushes the car down onto the race track—allowing higher cornering speed. It is also important to maximize aerodynamic stability: some racing cars have tested well at particular "attack angles", yet performed catastrophically, e.g. flipping over, when hitting a bump or experiencing turbulence from other vehicles (most notably the Mercedes-Benz CLR). For best cornering and racing performance, as required in Formula One cars, downforce and stability are crucial and these cars must attempt to maximize downforce and maintain stability while attempting to minimize the overall Cd value.

Typical drag coefficients

The average modern automobile achieves a drag coefficient of between 0.30 and 0.35. SUVs, with their typically boxy shapes and larger frontal area, typically achieve a Cd of 0.35–0.45. A very gently inclined windshield gives a lower drag coefficient but has safety disadvantages, including reduced driver visibility. Certain cars can achieve figures of 0.25–0.30, although sometimes designers deliberately increase drag to reduce lift.

Some examples of Cd follow. Figures given are generally for the basic model. Some "high performance" models may actually have higher drag, due to wider tires and extra spoilers.

Production cars
Cd Automobile Year
0.7 to 1.1 typical values for a Formula One car (downforce settings change for each circuit)
0.74 Legends car
0.7 Caterham Seven
0.65 to 0.75 Lotus Seven 1957–1972
0.6 + a typical truck
0.57 Hummer H2 2003
0.54 Mercedes Benz G-Class
0.51 Citroën 2CV 1948
0.48 Volkswagen Beetle (original design)[1][2] 1938
0.48 Rover Mini 1998
0.48 Volkswagen Cabriolet (Rabbit Convertible)[3] 1979–1993
0.47 Lancia Aprilia 1937
0.46 Ford Mustang (coupe) 1979
0.45 Range Rover Classic 1990
0.45 Dodge Viper RT/10 1996
0.44 Ford Mustang (fastback) 1979
0.44 Peugeot 305 1978
0.44 Peugeot 504 1968
0.44 Toyota Truck 1990
0.43 TVR 3000S 1978-79
0.425 Duple 425 coach
(named for its low Cd by coach standards)		 1985
0.42 Lamborghini Countach 1974
0.42 Triumph Spitfire Mk IV 1971
0.42 Plymouth Duster 1994
0.41 Smart Roadster 2003
0.41 Volvo 740 (sedan) 1982
0.405 Subaru Forester 1997-2002[4]
0.40 Ford Escape Hybrid 2005
0.40 Nissan Skyline GT-R R32 1989
0.40 Chevrolet Astro 1995-2005[5]
0.39 Ford Aerostar 1995[6]
0.39 Honda Odyssey 1994-98
0.39 Chevrolet Tahoe 2006
0.39 Dodge Durango 2004
0.39 Ford Escort 5 Door 1981-1984[7]
0.39 Triumph Spitfire 1964
0.385 Nissan 280ZX 1978
0.38 Smart Roadster Coupé 2003
0.38 Smart ForTwo 1998
0.38 Lexus GX 2003
0.38 Mazda Miata 1989
0.38 Subaru Forester 2009[8]
0.38 VW NewBeetle[9]
without wing or spoiler 0.39[10]		 2003
0.374 Ford Capri Mk III 1978
0.372 Ferrari F50 1996
0.37 BMW Z3 M coupe 1999
0.37 Jaguar XJ (X300/X308)
0.37 Renault Twingo
0.37 Volkswagen Tiguan 2008
0.36 Alfa Romeo 33 1983[11]
0.36 Cadillac Escalade hybrid 2008
0.36 Cadillac Fleetwood 1996
0.36 Volkswagen Jetta 1985-1992[12]
0.36 Citroën CX (named after the term for Cd) 1974
0.36 Citroën DS 1955
0.36 Chrysler Sebring 1996
0.36 Ferrari Testarossa 1986
0.36 Ford Escort 1997-2002[13]
0.36 Ford Mustang 1999
0.36 Honda Civic 2001–2005
0.36 Opel GT 1969
0.36 Subaru Impreza WRX[14] 2010
0.36 Saturn SW 1996-2001[13]
0.36 Toyota Celica Convertible 1994-1999[15]
0.36, 0.244 (1:5) Tatra 87 1936-1950[16]
0.35 Aleko 2141 1986-2002
0.35 Aston Martin Vanquish 2004
0.35 BMW Z4 M coupe 2006
0.35 BMW M3 Convertible 2005
0.35 Dodge Viper GTS 1996
0.35 Honda Del Sol 1992–1997[13]
0.35 Jaguar XKR 2005
0.35 Lexus GX 2010
0.35 Lexus RX 2003–2009
0.35 MINI Cooper 2008
0.35 Nissan Cube 2009
0.355 NSU Ro 80 1967
0.35 Renault Clio (Mk 2) 2002[17]
0.35 SSC Ultimate Aero 2007–present
0.35 Tesla Roadster[18] 2008
0.35 Toyota MR-2 1998
0.35 Toyota Sequoia 2007
0.35 Toyota Previa 1991-1997[19][20]
0.35 Volvo 940 (sedan) 1990
0.348 Toyota Celica Supra (Mk 2) 1982[21]
0.342 Toyota Celica (Liftback Model) 1982
0.34 Subaru Impreza WRX (4 Door) 2009[22]
0.34 Aston Martin DB9 2004
0.34 Chevrolet Caprice 1994
0.34 Chevrolet Tahoe hybrid 2008
0.34 Chevrolet C6 Corvette Z06 2005–present
0.34 Ferrari F40 1987
0.34 Ferrari 360 Modena 1999
0.34 Ferrari F430 F1 2004
0.34 Ford Sierra 1982
0.34 Ford Puma 1997
0.34 Geo Metro (Hatchback) 1995-1997[13]
0.34 Honda Prelude 1988
0.34 Mercedes-Benz SL (Roof Down) 2001
0.34 Nissan Altima 1993-1997[23]
0.34 Peugeot 106 1991
0.34 Saturn SL2 1991-1995[24]
0.34 Subaru Legacy Wagon 1993-1999[25]
0.34 Toyota Supra (with factory 3 piece turbo wing) 1989–1990
0.34 Toyota Corolla (Wagon) 1993-1997[26]
0.338 Chevrolet Camaro 1995
0.33 Alfa Romeo Giulia (saloon) 1962[27]
0.33 Audi A3 2006
0.33 Acura Integra 1993-2001[28]
0.33 Citroën SM 1970
0.33 Honda Civic Hatchback 1988-1991[13]
0.33 Dodge Charger 2006
0.33 Ford Crown Victoria 1992
0.33 Ford Fusion 2010[29]
0.33 Ford Escort ZX2 1998-2003[30]
0.33 Honda Accord Sedan 2002
0.33 Lamborghini Murcielago 2001
0.33 Lexus RX 2010
0.33 Mazda RX-7 FC3C 1987
0.33 Nissan 200SX Coupe 1995-1998[31]
0.33 Peugeot 206 1998
0.33 Peugeot 309 1986
0.33 Renault Modus 2004
0.33 Subaru Impreza WRX STi 2004
0.33 Saturn SL2 1999[32]
0.33 Toyota Corolla 1993-1997[13]
0.33 Toyota Supra (without wing) 1989–1990
0.329 Chevrolet Corsica 1989-2006[33]
0.324 Cobalt SS Supercharged 2005
0.321 Toyota Matrix 2003-2008[34]
0.32 Tatra 600 1948-1952[35]
0.32 Volkswagen Golf Mk3 1991
0.32 AMC Pacer 1975–1980
0.32 Ferrari California 2008
0.32 Buick Riviera 1995
0.32 BMW M3 Coupe 2005
0.32 Dodge Avenger 1995
0.32 Ford Taurus 1992-1995[36]
0.32 Geo Metro (Sedan) 1995-1997[13]
0.32 Honda Accord (Coupe) 2002
0.32 Honda NSX 1990
0.32 Honda Civic (Coupe) 1992-1995[13]
0.32 Honda Civic (Hatchback DX) 1996-2000[37]
0.32 Honda Civic (Sedan EX) 1996-2000[38]
0.32 Mazdaspeed3 2007
0.32 McLaren F1 1992
0.32 Mercedes-Benz 190E 2.5-16/2.3-16
0.32 Nissan Altima 1998-2001[39]
0.32 Nissan 240SX Coupe 1995-1998[40]
0.32 Nissan 300ZX 1989
0.32 Nissan Maxima 1997
0.32 Porsche 997 GT2 2008–present
0.32 Peugeot 406 1995
0.32 Peugeot 806 1994
0.32 Scion xB 2008
0.32 Suzuki Swift 1991
0.32 Toyota Celica 1994
0.32 Toyota Celica 2000-2005[41]
0.32 Toyota Supra (N/A with wing and turbo models) 1993
0.32 Toyota Supra (with factory turbo wing) 1987–1988
0.32 Toyota Tercel Sedan 1995-2000[42]
0.32 Volkswagen GTI Mk V 2006
0.32 Volvo V50 2004
Production cars (continued)
Cd Automobile Year
0.315 Saturn SL1 1996-1999[43]
0.31 Audi A4 B5 1995
0.31 BMW 7-series 2009
0.31 Buick Park Avenue 1996
0.31 Cadillac CTS-V 2005
0.31 Cadillac CTS 2004
0.31 Citroën AX 1986
0.31 Citroën GS 1970
0.31 Eagle Vision 1995
0.31 Fiat Coupé 1995[44]
0.31 Ford Falcon 1995
0.31 Ford Thunderbird 1989-1997[45]
0.304 Ford Probe 1988-1992[46]
0.31 Audi A5/S5 2011-present
0.31 Holden Commodore 1998
0.31 Honda Civic (Sedan) 2006
0.31 Honda Civic (Hatchback) 1992-1995[13]
0.31 Infiniti G37 (Coupe) 2008-present[47]
0.31 Kia Rio (Sedan) 2001[48]
0.310 Lamborghini Diablo 1990
0.31 Lexus LFA
(wing retracted)		 2010
0.31 Mazda RX-7 FC3S 1986
0.31 Mazda RX-7 FD R1(R2) 1993
0.31 Mazda RX-8 2004
0.31 Mazda MX-6 1992–1997
0.31 Mazda 3 (Hatchback) 2010
0.31 Nissan Tiida / Versa 2004
0.31 Peugeot 307 2001
0.31 Peugeot 405 1987
0.31 Porsche 997 Turbo/GT3 2006
0.31 Renault 25 1984
0.31 Saab Sonett III 1970
0.31 Saturn SC2 2001
0.31 Scion xA 2004
0.31 Toyota Avalon 1995–2000
0.31 Toyota Corolla 1998-2002[49]
0.31 Toyota Paseo 1995-1999[50]
0.31 Toyota RAV4 2006
0.31 Toyota Supra (N/A; without factory wing) 1993
0.31 Volkswagen GTI Mk IV 1997
0.31 Volvo S40 2nd generation 2003
0.30 Audi 100 1983
0.30 Alfa Romeo 164 Sedan 1988[51]
0.30 Ford Taurus 1996-1999[52][53]
0.30 Honda Accord Sedan 2003, 2005–2007
0.30 Honda NSX 2002
0.30 Honda CRX DX/Si[54] 1988
0.30 Honda Odyssey 2005
0.30 Hyundai Sonata 2006
0.30 Koenigsegg CCX 2006
0.30 Mitsubishi Eclipse 2000
0.30 Nissan 180SX 1989
0.30 Nissan 300ZX 1983
0.30 Nissan 350Z Coupe Base and Enthusiast models 2003–2008
0.30 Nissan 370Z Coupe
(0.29 with sport package)		 2009[55]
0.30 Renault 19 16V 1991
0.30 Saab 92 1947
0.30 Toyota Sienna 2003–2009
0.30 Toyota Corolla 2003-2008[56]
0.295 Ford Falcon 1998
0.291 Toyota Avalon 2005
0.29 Audi A4/S4 2011-present
0.29 Lexus CT 200h 2011-present
0.29 Alfa Romeo 155 1992[57]
0.29 BMW 1-Series (116i Sportshatch) 2008
0.29 Pontiac Firebird Trans Am
(with optional W62 Aero Package and N89 Turbo Cast rims)		 1984
0.29 BMW 8-Series 1989-1999
0.29 Chevrolet Corvette 2005
0.29 Chevrolet Corvette C5 Z06 2002
0.29 Daewoo Espero 1990
0.29 Dodge Charger Daytona 1969
0.29 Eagle Talon 1990s
0.29 Ford Escape 2010[58]
0.29 Ford Focus C-Max 2003[59]
0.29 Honda Accord Hybrid 2005, 2007
0.29 Honda Accord Coupe 2003, 2005–2007
0.29 Honda CRX HF[54] 1988
0.29 Infiniti G35 Sedan 2008
0.29 Lancia Dedra 1990
0.29 Lexus LS 400 1990
0.29 Lotus Elite 1958
0.29 Lotus Europa 1966
0.29 Mazda Millenia 1995
0.29 Mazda RX-7 FC3S Aero Package 1986
0.29 Mazda 3 2010
0.29 Mazda RX-7 FD 1993
0.29 Mercedes-Benz SL (Roof Up) 2001-present
0.29 Mercedes-Benz C-Class Sportscoupe 2001
0.29 Nissan 350Z Coupe Track and Grand Touring 2007–2008
0.29 Nissan Versa 2007–2008
0.29 Peugeot 308 2007-present
0.29 Peugeot 407 2004-2011
0.29 Peugeot 607 2000-2010
0.29 Porsche Boxster 2005-present
0.29 Audi 80 1991
0.29 Subaru SVX 1992
0.29 Toyota Echo 2000-2005[60][61]
0.29 Toyota Yaris 2006-2011
0.29 Toyota Camry 1996–2001
0.29 Toyota Prius 2001
0.29 Volvo C70 2000
0.288 Chrysler Concorde 1998–2001
0.286 Chevrolet Corvette C6 2006
0.284 Volkswagen Passat CC 2008-present
0.281 Chevrolet Volt 2010
0.28 Audi A2 1.4 TDI 2000
0.28 Citroën XM 1989
0.28 Citroën C4 2004
0.28 Lexus IS 2006–present
0.28 Lexus LS400 1998
0.28 Mazda 3 (Hatchback) 2012
0.28 Mitsubishi Diamante 1995
0.28 Porsche 997 Carrera
(with optional automatic spoiler, PDK transmission 0.30)		 2004
0.28 Renault 25 TS 1984
0.28 Honda Civic Hybrid 2003-2005[13]
0.28 Rumpler Tropfenwagen 1921
0.28 Saab 9-3 2003
0.28 Toyota Camry / Lexus ES 2001
0.28 Nissan Leaf 2011
0.28 Opel Astra Coupe Turbo 2003
0.28 Hyundai Elantra 2011
0.28 Hyundai Sonata
(0.25 for the Hybrid)		 2011
0.28 Opel Omega A 1986 0.28 Luxgen5 Sedan 2011
0.27 Nissan GTR 2008
0.27 Mazda 6 2009
0.27 Audi A2 1.6 FSI 2003
0.27 Honda Civic Hybrid 2006-
0.27 Hyundai Genesis 2009
0.27 Infiniti G35 Coupe
(0.26 with "aero package")		 2003–2007
0.27 Lexus GS 2005
0.27 Mazda6 (sedan and hatchback)[62] 2008
0.27 Mercedes-Benz W203 C-Class Sedan 2001
0.27 Nissan GT-R 2007–2010
0.27 Toyota Camry Hybrid 2007
0.27 Tucker Torpedo 1948
0.27 Volkswagen Passat B5 (sedan) 1997
0.27 Mercedes-Benz S Class
(0.268 with Sport Package)		 2000–2005
0.27 Opel Insignia
(0.26 in EcoFlex trim)		 2008–present
0.26 BMW E90 (0.26-0.30) 2009[63]
0.26 Lexus LS 430
(0.25 with air suspension)		 2001–2006
0.26 Lexus LS 460 2006
0.26 Mazda 3 (Sedan) 2012[64]
0.26 Mercedes-Benz B-Class + eco-package 2012-
0.26 Mercedes-Benz W221 S-Class 2006-present
0.26 Mercedes-Benz E-Class 2002-2009
0.26 Nissan GT-R 2010–present
0.26 Opel Calibra
(8 valve version)		 1989
0.26 Toyota Prius 2004–2009
0.22 Tesla Model S 2012[65]
0.25 Audi A2 1.2 TDI 2001
0.25 Honda Insight 1999, 2003, 2005
0.25 Toyota Prius , Independently tested at 0.30 [66] 2010
0.2455 (1:5) Tatra 77 1933[67]
0.24 Mercedes E 220 CDI Blue Efficiency European version only, other E-Class Coupe 0.28
(0.25 sedan)(		 2009
0.212 (1:5)[68][69] Tatra T77A 1935[70]

[71] [72] [73]
0.195 General Motors EV1 1996
Concept/experimental cars
Cd Automobile Year
0.39 Porsche 918 2010
0.27 Avion[74] 1986
0.26 Alfa Romeo Disco Volante 1952
0.25 Dymaxion Car 1933
0.25 SmILE (an experimental car) 1996
0.22 Citroën ECO 2000 Concept 1981[75]
0.22 BMW Vision EfficientDynamics Concept 2009
0.20 Loremo Concept 2006
20XX (Planned production)
0.20 Opel Eco Speedster Concept 2003
0.19 Alfa Romeo B.A.T. 7 Concept 1954
0.19 Dodge Intrepid ESX Concept 1995
0.19 Mercedes-Benz Bionic Concept[76](based on the boxfish) 2005
0.186 Schlör's Göttinger Ei 1939
0.186 Volkswagen XL1 2011
0.17 Pininfarina Fiat 124 concept (Morelli shape) 1978
0.170 Chrysler Ghia Dart 1955[77]
0.168 Daihatsu UFE-III Concept 2005[78]
0.16 General Motors Precept Concept (5 seats) 2000
0.16 Edison2 Very Light Car, Automotive X Prize winner[79] 2010
0.159 Volkswagen 1-litre car Concept 2002
2013 (Planned production)
0.157 Li-ion Motors Wave II, Automotive X Prize winner[80] 2010
0.15 Aptera 2 Series 2e Prototype 2011
0.147 JCB Dieselmax land speed record holder 2006
0.146 Urbee Production vehicle 2010
0.14 Fiat Turbina Concept 1954
0.137 Ford Probe V Concept 1985
0.125 Sunraycer, solar race car 1987
0.12 Reflex 1000, solar cycle 1996[81]
0.117 Summers Brothers Goldenrod Bonneville race car 1965
0.08 Fortis Saxonia (Shell Eco-marathon) Concept 2007
0.075 PAC-Car II (Shell Eco-marathon) Concept 2005
0.07 Nuna, World Solar Challenge winner 2001–2007

Drag area

While designers pay attention to the overall shape of the automobile, they also bear in mind that reducing the frontal area of the shape helps reduce the drag. The combination of drag coefficient and area - drag area - is represented as CdA (or CxA), a multiplication of the Cd value by the area.

The term drag area derives from aerodynamics, where it is the product of some reference area (such as cross-sectional area, total surface area, or similar) and the drag coefficient. In 2003, Car and Driver magazine adopted this metric as a more intuitive way to compare the aerodynamic efficiency of various automobiles.

Average full-size passenger cars have a drag area of roughly 8.50 sq ft (0.790 m2). Reported drag areas range from the 1999 Honda Insight at 5.10 sq ft (0.474 m2) to the 2003 Hummer H2 at 26.3 sq ft (2.44 m2). The drag area of a bicycle is also in the range of 6.5–7.5 sq ft (0.60–0.70 m2).[82]

Automobile examples of CdA[83]
CdA Automobile model
2.50 sq ft (0.232 m2) 1986 Twike[84]
2.69 sq ft (0.250 m2) 2009 Loremo
3.00 sq ft (0.279 m2) 2011 Volkswagen XL1
3.95 sq ft (0.367 m2) 1996 GM EV1
5.10 sq ft (0.474 m2) 1999 Honda Insight
5.40 sq ft (0.502 m2) 1989 Opel Calibra
5.71 sq ft (0.530 m2) 1990 Honda CR-X Si
5.74 sq ft (0.533 m2) 2002 Acura NSX
5.76 sq ft (0.535 m2) 1968 Toyota 2000GT
5.80 sq ft (0.539 m2) 1986 Toyota MR2
5.81 sq ft (0.540 m2) 1989 Mitsubishi Eclipse GSX
5.86 sq ft (0.544 m2) 2001 Audi A2 1.2 TDI 3L
5.88 sq ft (0.546 m2) 1990 Nissan 240SX / 200SX / 180SX
5.92 sq ft (0.550 m2) 1994 Porsche 911 Speedster
5.95 sq ft (0.553 m2) 1990 Mazda RX7
6.00 sq ft (0.557 m2) 1992 Subaru SVX
6.00 sq ft (0.557 m2) 1970 Lamborghini Miura
6.08 sq ft (0.565 m2) 2008 Nissan GTR
6.13 sq ft (0.569 m2) 1991 Acura NSX
6.17 sq ft (0.573 m2) 1995 Lamborghini Diablo
6.24 sq ft (0.580 m2) 2004 Toyota Prius
6.27 sq ft (0.583 m2) 1986 Porsche 911 Carrera
6.27 sq ft (0.583 m2) 1992 Chevrolet Corvette
6.35 sq ft (0.590 m2) 1999 Lotus Elise
6.37 sq ft (0.592 m2) 2000 Vauxhall VX220 N/A
6.40 sq ft (0.595 m2) 1990 Lotus Esprit
6.41 sq ft (0.596 m2) 2003 Smart Roadster Coupé
6.54 sq ft (0.608 m2) 1991 Saturn Sports Coupe
6.57 sq ft (0.610 m2) 1985 Chevrolet Corvette
6.63 sq ft (0.616 m2) 2001 Audi A2
6.63 sq ft (0.616 m2) 1989 Ford Thunderbird
6.66 sq ft (0.619 m2) 1996 Citroën Saxo
6.77 sq ft (0.629 m2) 1995 BMW M3
6.79 sq ft (0.631 m2) 1993 Toyota Corolla DX
6.80 sq ft (0.632 m2) 2007 BMW 335i Coupe
6.81 sq ft (0.633 m2) 1991 Subaru Legacy
6.90 sq ft (0.641 m2) 1993 Saturn Wagon
6.93 sq ft (0.644 m2) 1982 Delorean DMC-12
6.94 sq ft (0.645 m2) 2003 Smart Roadster
6.96 sq ft (0.647 m2) 1988 Porsche 944 S
6.96 sq ft (0.647 m2) 1995 Chevrolet Lumina LS
7.02 sq ft (0.652 m2) 1992 BMW 325I
7.04 sq ft (0.654 m2) 1991 Honda Civic EX
7.06 sq ft (0.656 m2) 2004 Vauxhall VX220 Turbo
7.10 sq ft (0.660 m2) 1995 Saab 900
7.14 sq ft (0.663 m2) 1995 Subaru Legacy L
7.20 sq ft (0.669 m2) 1995 Nissan Maxima GLE
7.34 sq ft (0.682 m2) 2001 Honda Civic
7.39 sq ft (0.687 m2) 1994 Honda Accord EX
7.48 sq ft (0.695 m2) 1993 Chevrolet Camaro Z28
7.57 sq ft (0.703 m2) 1992 Toyota Camry
7.69 sq ft (0.714 m2) 1994 Chrysler LHS
7.72 sq ft (0.717 m2) 1993 Subaru Impreza
8.02 sq ft (0.745 m2) 2005 Bugatti Veyron
8.70 sq ft (0.808 m2) 1990 Volvo 740 Turbo
8.70 sq ft (0.808 m2) 1992 Ford Crown Victoria
8.71 sq ft (0.809 m2) 1991 Buick LeSabre Limited
9.54 sq ft (0.886 m2) 1992 Chevrolet Caprice Wagon
10.7 sq ft (0.99 m2) 1992 Chevrolet Blazer
11.6 sq ft (1.08 m2) 2005 Ford Escape Hybrid
11.7 sq ft (1.09 m2) 1993 Jeep Grand Cherokee
16.8 sq ft (1.56 m2) 2006 Hummer H3
17.4 sq ft (1.62 m2) 1995 Land Rover Discovery
26.5 sq ft (2.46 m2) 2003 Hummer H2

See also

References

  1. ^ "Technique of the VW Beetle". Maggiolinoweb.it. http://www.maggiolinoweb.it/technique.html. Retrieved 2009-10-24. 
  2. ^ "The Mayfield Homepage - Coefficient of Drag for Selected Vehicles". Mayfco.com. http://www.mayfco.com/dragcd~1.htm. Retrieved 2009-10-24. 
  3. ^ "Volkswagen Cabriolet MK1 Specs". Cabby-Info.com. http://www.cabby-info.com/specs.htm. Retrieved 2010-01-12. 
  4. ^ "1998 SUBARU FORESTER S". theautochannel.com. http://www.theautochannel.com/vehicles/new/reviews/1998/russ082597.html. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  5. ^ "Chevrolet Astro Van (1996)". theautochannel.com. http://www.theautochannel.com/vehicles/new/reviews/wk9542.html. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  6. ^ "1995 Ford Aerostar Specs". motortrend.com. http://www.motortrend.com/cars/1995/ford/aerostar/specifications/index.html. Retrieved 2010-08-18. 
  7. ^ "1981 Ford Escort". carfolio.com. http://www.carfolio.com/specifications/models/car/?car=26873. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  8. ^ "Subaru Forester specs available". CarsDirect. http://www.carsdirect.com/research/specs?cat=all&make=SU&modelid=223&acode=USC00SUS041A0&year=null. Retrieved 2009-10-24. 
  9. ^ "Evworld Feature: Giving The New Beetle Wings:Vw | Rogers | Beetle | Wing | Drag | Porsche | Volkswagen | Thiokol | Utah | Fuel | Economy | Biodiesel | Diesel | Aerodynamics". Evworld.com. http://www.evworld.com/article.cfm?archive=1&storyid=911&first=2412&end=2411. Retrieved 2010-12-07. 
  10. ^ "Aero Testing - Part 3". AutoSpeed. http://autospeed.com/cms/A_108675/article.html. Retrieved 2009-10-24. 
  11. ^ Daily Mail Motor Review 1984
  12. ^ Smith, David C. (December 1984). "Golf, Jetta much improved and, with them, VWA's hopes". Ward's Auto World 
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Ecomodder Wiki Vehicle Coefficient of Drag". http://ecomodder.com/wiki/index.php/Vehicle_Coefficient_of_Drag_List. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  14. ^ "Subaru Canada". Subaru.ca. http://subaru.ca/SubaruData.aspx?WebPageID=13725&WebSiteID=282&CompareType=S&CarIds=430&Category=AllSpecCategory. Retrieved 2009-10-24. 
  15. ^ "Toyota Celica GT (1995)". theautochannel.com. http://www.theautochannel.com/vehicles/new/reviews/wk9525.html. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  16. ^ Ralf J. F. Kieselbach, Stromlinienautos in Europa und USA, Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1982, page 19
  17. ^ "2002 Renault Clio II 1.5 dCi 80 technical specifications and data - 3 door 1.5 litre (1461 cc) S4 79.1 PS - Carfolio.com car specifications pages". Carfolio.com. http://www.carfolio.com/specifications/models/car/?car=112816. Retrieved 2009-10-24. 
  18. ^ Ramsey, Jonathon (2009-03-26). "Tesla Model S: $50,000 EV sedan seats seven, 300-mile range, 0-60 in 5.5s". autobloggreen. http://www.autobloggreen.com/2009/03/26/tesla-model-s-50-000-ev-sedan-seats-seven-300-mile-range-0-6/. Retrieved 2009-04-12. 
  19. ^ "Toyota Previa LE S/C 1995". theautochannel.com. http://www.theautochannel.com/vehicles/new/reviews/wk9441.html. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  20. ^ "1990 Toyota Previa". carfolio.com. http://www.carfolio.com/specifications/models/car/?car=36201. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  21. ^ [1]
  22. ^ "Subaru Canada". Subaru.ca. http://subaru.ca/SubaruData.aspx?WebPageID=13725&WebSiteID=282&CompareType=S&CarIds=422&Category=AllSpecCategory. Retrieved 2009-10-24. 
  23. ^ "Nissan Altima GXE (1995)". theautochannel.com. http://www.theautochannel.com/vehicles/new/reviews/wk9451.html. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  24. ^ "Saturn SL2 (1995)". theautochannel.com. http://www.theautochannel.com/vehicles/new/reviews/wk9520.html. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  25. ^ "1995 SUBARU LEGACY L WAGON". theautochannel.com. http://www.theautochannel.com/vehicles/new/reviews/wk9449.html. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  26. ^ "1996 Toyota Corolla DX Wagon". theautochannel.com. Archived from the original on 1996-11-28. http://web.archive.org/web/19961128195229/http://www.theautochannel.com/vehicles/new/reviews/Toydxwag.htm. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  27. ^ "1964 Giulia 1600 Series 105". conceptcarz.com. http://www.conceptcarz.com/vehicle/z9388/Alfa-Romeo-Giulia-Series-105.aspx. Retrieved 2011-06-28. 
  28. ^ "Acura Integra GS-R (1994)". theautochannel.com. http://www.theautochannel.com/vehicles/new/reviews/wk9349.html. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  29. ^ "Ford Fusion specs available". CarsDirect. http://www.carsdirect.com/research/specs?cat=6&make=FO&modelid=583&acode=USC00FOC201A0&year=2010. Retrieved 2009-10-24. 
  30. ^ "Ford Escort ZX2 (1998)". theautochannel.com. http://www.theautochannel.com/vehicles/new/reviews/1998/russ102497.html. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  31. ^ "1995 NISSAN 200SX SE-R TWO-DOOR COUPE". motortrend.com. http://www.theautochannel.com/vehicles/new/reviews/wk9523.html. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  32. ^ "Saturn SL2 (1999)". theautochannel.com. http://www.theautochannel.com/vehicles/new/reviews/1999/solo9936.html. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  33. ^ "1990 Chevrolet Corsica Sales training Video". youtube.com. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1VRyViEJ3lg. Retrieved 2011-01-15. 
  34. ^ "Review:2003 Toyota Matrix". theautochannel.com. http://www.theautochannel.com/news/2002/05/08/140092.html. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  35. ^ Karel Rosenkranz, Tatra, Autoalbum 2002, page 107
  36. ^ "1994 FORD TAURUS GL". theautochannel.com. http://www.theautochannel.com/vehicles/new/reviews/wk9346.htm. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  37. ^ "Honda Civic DX Hatchback (1996)". theautochannel.com. http://www.theautochannel.com/vehicles/new/reviews/wk9551.html. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  38. ^ "Honda Civic EX Sedan (1996)". theautochannel.com. http://www.theautochannel.com/vehicles/new/reviews/honda.html. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  39. ^ "Nissan Altima GLE (1998)". theautochannel.com. http://www.theautochannel.com/vehicles/new/reviews/1998/russ090597.html. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  40. ^ "1995 NISSAN 240SX SE SPORT COUPE". motortrend.com. http://www.theautochannel.com/vehicles/new/reviews/wk9434.html. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  41. ^ "Toyota Celica GT-S (2000)". theautochannel.com. http://www.theautochannel.com/vehicles/new/reviews/2000/russ0019.html. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  42. ^ "Toyota Tercel DX (1995)". theautochannel.com. http://www.theautochannel.com/vehicles/new/reviews/wk9517.html. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  43. ^ "Saturn SL1 (1996)". theautochannel.com. http://www.theautochannel.com/vehicles/new/reviews/wk9552.htm. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  44. ^ [2]
  45. ^ "Toyota Tercel Reference - CdA List". http://www.tercelreference.com/Downloads/CdA_List.htm. Retrieved 2010-07-15. 
  46. ^ "Carfolio Car Specifications". http://www.carfolio.com/specifications/models/car/?car=11484. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  47. ^ "2011 Infiniti G Coupe Specifications". Infiniti USA. http://www.infinitiusa.com/g_coupe/specs-options/. Retrieved 2011-01-25. 
  48. ^ "2001 Kia Rio Specifications - View New Kia Rio 2001 Specs & Data at". Internetautoguide.com. http://www.internetautoguide.com/car-specifications/09-int/2001/kia/rio/index.html. Retrieved 2010-04-23. 
  49. ^ "1998 TOYOTA COROLLA LE". theautochannel.com. http://www.theautochannel.com/vehicles/new/reviews/1998/solo9809.html. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  50. ^ "Toyota Paseo (1996)". theautochannel.com. http://www.theautochannel.com/vehicles/new/reviews/wk9549.html. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  51. ^ "Four of a Kind: The Alfa Romeo 164 and the "Type Four" Cars". ateupwithmotor.com. http://ateupwithmotor.com/luxury-and-personal-luxury-cars/169-four-of-a-kind-alfa-romeo-164.html. Retrieved 2011-06-28. 
  52. ^ "1996/1997 FORD TAURUS SHO". theautochannel.com. http://www.theautochannel.com/vehicles/new/reviews/1997/solo9646.html. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  53. ^ "1996 FORD TAURUS GL SEDAN". theautochannel.com. http://www.theautochannel.com/vehicles/new/reviews/wk9548.html. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  54. ^ a b gtmash. "Honda Civic CRX - Car Cutaway - Modern Racer - Features". Modern Racer. http://www.modernracer.com/features/carcutawayhondaciviccrx.html. Retrieved 2009-10-24. 
  55. ^ "2009 Nissan 370Z Coupe Specs". Nissan USA. 2009-08-31. http://www.nissanusa.com/zcoupe/specifications.html. Retrieved 2009-10-24. 
  56. ^ "2003 Toyota Corolla Specs". motortrend.com. http://www.motortrend.com/cars/2003/toyota/corolla/specifications/index.html. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  57. ^ "1992 Alfa Romeo 155 1.8 Twin Spark technical specifications". carfolio.com. http://www.carfolio.com/specifications/models/car/?car=41602. Retrieved 2011-06-28. 
  58. ^ "Ford Escape Hybrid". All-about-car-selection.com. http://www.all-about-car-selection.com/ford-escape-hybrid.html. Retrieved 2010-04-23. 
  59. ^ "All-new Ford Focus C-Max - Ford Forums - Mustang Forum, Ford Trucks and Cars". Ford Forums. http://www.fordforums.com/f349/all-new-ford-focus-c-max-32598/. Retrieved 2010-04-23. 
  60. ^ "2000 Toyota Echo Review". theautochannel.com. http://www.theautochannel.com/vehicles/new/reviews/2000/lhill_2000echo.html. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  61. ^ "Toyota Echo 4-Door (2000)". theautochannel.com. http://www.theautochannel.com/vehicles/new/reviews/2000/gap0010.html. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 
  62. ^ [3]
  63. ^ Interone Worldwide GmbH (2008-06-17). "BMW 3 Series Sedan : Technical data". Bmw.com. http://www.bmw.com/com/en/newvehicles/3series/sedan/2008/allfacts/engine/technical_data.html. Retrieved 2009-10-24. 
  64. ^ "Mazda Launches Second SKYACTIV Model in Japan: Facelifted Axela". http://www.mazda.com/publicity/release/2011/201109/110927a.html. 
  65. ^ Elliott, Hannah. "The Tesla Model S Will Be Like An iPad, Faster Than An Aston Martin". http://www.forbes.com/sites/hannahelliott/2011/11/02/elon-musk-tesla-model-s-will-be-like-ipad-faster-than-aston-martin/?utm_medium=Email&utm_source=ExactTarget&utm_campaign=%202011_12_news. 
  66. ^ Brooke, Lindsay (Nov 4 2010). "Sweating the Body Details". SAE Vehicle Electrification. http://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/sae/10EVSD1104/index.php?lre=1:3131394433443637344442344144344633373441453033413937384646463337#/38. Retrieved 11/22/11. 
  67. ^ "Tatra T600 Tatraplan". www.tatraplan.co.uk. http://www.tatraplan.co.uk. Retrieved 2011-12-06. 
  68. ^ Some sources claim this figure relates to a 1:5 model test"Tatra T600 Tatraplan". www.tatraplan.co.uk. http://www.tatraplan.co.uk. Retrieved 2011-12-06. 
  69. ^ Ivan Margolius, 'Model Behaviour', Octane, February 2012, pp. 38-9
  70. ^ Optimization and computational fluid dynamics, Gàbor Janiga, Springer, 2008, page 196
  71. ^ "Cheating Wind - Aerodynamic Tech and Buyers Guide". europeancarweb.com. http://www.europeancarweb.com/tech/0610_ec_aerodynamics_tech_buyers_guide/tables.html. Retrieved 2008-03-13. 
  72. ^ "Tatra 77 aerodynamic car (czech)". http://www.aerotatra.czweb.org/t77.htm. Retrieved 2010-05-17. 
  73. ^ Winning the oil endgame: innovation for profits, jobs and security, Amory B. Lovins, Rocky Mountain Institute, 2004, page 53
  74. ^ Avion specs, vehicle set the 1986 Guinness World Record for fuel efficiency at 103.7 mpg.
  75. ^ "50 000 km avec une Citroën Ax diesel, mon avis d'utilisateur ainsi que son coût kilométrique réel". Generationsfutures.chez-alice.fr. http://generationsfutures.chez-alice.fr/velo/citroen_ax_diesel.htm. Retrieved 2010-12-07. 
  76. ^ Frank Giovinazzi (2005-06-14). "Mercedes Bionic Concept Car". Carbuyersnotebook.com. http://www.carbuyersnotebook.com/archives/2005/06/mercedes_bionic.htm. Retrieved 2010-12-07. 
  77. ^ Motor Life-1958
  78. ^ "Daihatsu UFE-III | Concept Cars". Diseno-art.com. http://www.diseno-art.com/encyclopedia/concept_cars/daihatsu_ufe-III.html. Retrieved 2010-12-07. 
  79. ^ Annoy as little air as possible, Edison2 blog
  80. ^ "Li-ion Motors Wave II". Li-ionmotors.com. http://www.li-ionmotors.com/product.php?cName=Vehicles&pName=Wave&categoryId=2000000&productId=1000001. Retrieved 2010-12-07. 
  81. ^ "D & H Enterprises, composites and fibreglass technology". Dhenterprises.com.au. http://www.dhenterprises.com.au. Retrieved 2010-12-07. 
  82. ^ "(a bicycle's lower frontal area is offset by a higher drag coefficient)". Lafn.org. http://www.lafn.org/~dave/trans/energy/bicycle-energy.html#aero_drag. Retrieved 2011-06-28. 
  83. ^ "The Mayfield Company Homepage - Coefficient of Drag Tables and Curves". Mayfco.com. http://www.mayfco.com/tbls.htm. Retrieved 2010-12-07. 
  84. ^ "Program: hpvplot (updated 11/12/07)". Ent.ohiou.edu. http://www.ent.ohiou.edu/~et181/hpv/hpvplot.html. Retrieved 2010-12-07. 

External links